Section 5: Trends and Issues in Various Settings

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  This video showing footage of Objet's PolyJet helped me understand the concept of rapid prototyping better.
  
  Rapid Prototyping is an exciting, but costly, technology that allows students to bring their ideas to reality. It is a computer program that constructs three-dimensional models of work derived from a computer aided design (CAD) drawing. With the use of rapid prototyping, one can quickly and easily turn product designs into physical samples. The rapid prototyping process begins with a three-dimensional, virtual object in a computer. The next step is to slice this virtual object into layers using a specialized computer program. The computer sends the information about each layer, starting with the bottom layer, to a rapid prototyping machine. The machine then builds a plastic, wax, or paper prototype from the bottom layer up. Higher layers are then added on top of lower layers until the prototype is complete.
  
  
  The fifth graders at our school do an annual Medieval unit. Each student is responsible for creating a project, and many of them choose to create models of castles, weapons, or armor. This technology would present a way to turn their designs into 3-dimensional models. How cool would that be?
  
  If I were hired by the military as a consultant and electronic access was not always available for technology, I might suggest that in order to provide training anywhere and anytime they would need to utilize "Deployable Learning Resource Centers" that store and distribute training software and host the management tools to monitor, test, and record learner progress. These mobile units would consist of a server, network switch, printer, and laptop stations. The system could connect to external networks or could even be sent to field locations via wireless systems. this "solution on wheels" would provide valuable and continuous support to otherwise inaccessible locations.

To introduce The Guidance System for Transforming Education (GSTE) and Step-Up-To-Excellence (SUTE) in a staff development activity to my colleagues, I would have them brainstorm and come up with a plan to take a low-performing school system and transform it to a higher-performing school system using these whole-system methodologies.

In order to incorporate GSTE, we would:
1) Discuss the values of the troubled school system and compare these values with those
core values underlying GSTE
2) Outline a chronological series of activities or "discrete
events"for engaging in systemic change. This would call for a discussion of what is not working in the low-performing system and suggestions of revisions that would bring about change. The following phases would be included in this revision process:
Phase 1: Initiate systemic change effort
Phase 2: Develop a starter team
Phase 3: Develop a district-wide framework and capacity for change
Phase 4: Create ideal designs for a new educational system
3) Discuss "continuous events" that would need to be addressed continuously throughout the
change process such as sustaining motivation, building team spirit, building a community,
building and maintaining trust, etc.

In order to incorporate SUTE, we would:

• Discuss the attributes of good leaders who could effectively guide this mission and serve on the strategic leadership team
• Brainstorm some pre-launch activities that might be effective in preparing the district for whole-system change (such as building political support or documentation of the need for change)
• Discuss how the school district could be redesigned by improving the district's relationship with its external environment. Identify problems and offer possible solutions. How could the district's core and supporting work processes be improved? How can the district's internal social infrastructure be improved?
• Discuss how clusters of schools and supporting workers work together to bring about change
• Discuss the role of the Site Improvement Team
• Discuss ways Organization Learning Networks serve as learning communities to create and support opportunities for learning
• Discuss how On-Track Seminars examine what happened and "why" it happened by using formative and summative evaluation data
• Discuss qualities that would be required to successfully serve as a Transformation Coordinator.
• Discuss ways that IDT specialists can work to create improvements in the process that creates and sustains improvements.

Faculty Development Programs:

Michigan State Univeristy

The Office of Faculty and Organizational Development is part of Academic Human Resources in the Office of the Provost. It supports faculty, staff and administrators in teaching, research, outreach and leadership. It offers workshops and seminars for faculty leaders, cohort programs, consultation/services for instructors, community building programs such as faculty social gatherings and faculty development networks, orientations for new staff, information about grants and activities, and various resources for instructors. Some specific programs offered are Leadership and Administrator (LEAD) Seminar Series, Executive Leadership Academy, SoTL Symposium, and From Associate Professor to Professor: Productive Decision-Making at Mid Career.

University of Connecticut

The Institute for Teaching and Learning offers a full range of faculty development programs to all faculty. The formats range from individual consultation services to departmental workshops, from books groups and learning communities to campus-wide teaching institutes. All services are free and confidential. "Teaching to Go" is a program offered where faculty can choose from a variety of workshops to be delivered to department meetings. Additional services offered are Brown Bag Seminar, Departmental Support, New Faculty Orientaton, and Resources for Veterans.

Kent State Universtiy

The Faculty Professional Development Center at Kent State provides opportunities, leadership and support for faculty and is under the Office of the Provost. In addition to workshops and programs designed to support faculty and graduate students in their professional development, the FPDC offers free consultations, a faculty classroom equipped with smart board, laptops and meeting table for faculty who want to hold department meetings or need a space to collaborate or create projects, and a studio with technology resources including printing and scanning equipment. Some of the programs currently being offered are Service Learning designed to enrich the understanding of course content, broaden appreciation of the discipline, and enhance development of civic responsibility; Action Reads which entails taking action related to a common reading and sharing the results with colleagues; and the Moulton Scholars Program which provides faculty with resources to use technology in their scholarly work.

Session 4: Human Performance Technology

One of the main performance problems I face in my job as Librarian/Media Specialist at Atlanta
Elementary School is teachers' reluctance to use technology that is available and easily accessible to them. Many excellent resources are available for them to use, but even though the district has gone to the expense of training the teachers to use them, they fail to do so for a variety of reasons. Those reasons may be lack of time, lack of interest, feelings of inadequacy in using technology, or failure to see the value of the resource in helping them reach the desired outcomes through the performance of their students. One possible intervention to improve human performance in this situation might be to include an incentive system in which teachers would be rewarded for the use of these resources which include hardware, software, databases, online resources, etc. An example might be to offer a "reward" such as a flash drive, a surge protector, a FLIP camera, or the use of an iPad for a year to a teacher who wins a contest that exhibits his/her implementation of the "Technology of the Month". Hopefully this would be a step toward improving the quality of human performance and increasing success by transferring skills and knowledge to the classrooms.

According to the text, "the primary goal of an electronic performance support system is to enable people to perform their work more effectively by providing workers with whatever is needed, at the time it is needed to perform a task". Wikipedia defines EPSS as "any computer software program or component that improves user performance".
William Bezanxon's defines a performance support system as providing "just-in-time, just enough training, information, tools and help for users of a product or work environment to enable optimum performance by those users when and where needed, thereby also enhancing the performance of the overall business".

The definition I found that I tend to prefer is published by webbasedtraining.com in which EPSS is defined as applications designed to run simultaneously with other applications or embedded within applications that provide support for the user in accomplishing specific tasks. An EPSS may provide needed information, present job aids, and deliver just-in-time, context-sensitive training on demand. This definition clearly states that an EPSS provides training on demand and may be imbedded in the application. After reading this definition, it began to click with me that I am already using many forms of EPSS.

One EPSS that I use on a daily basis is Follett's Destiny software that integrates library circulation, inventory, cataloging, patron status, fines, due dates, etc. When a book is scanned at the circulation desk, the program adjusts the corresponding inventory records, pulls up the patron's status, checks for fines or overdue books, allows me to see how many copies we have and whether or not they are available for check out from another campus within our district. In addition the software allows me to create and print notices and reports and offers online help and technical support. At the touch of button, I have immediate access to accurate information which enables me to better manage the library or receive the help and training that I need to accomplish my goals.

I believe EPSS have not been widely used for several reasons. Employees are often resistant to change. Jobs are often redefined as EPSS are implemented and users are reluctant to adapt to a new way of doing things, so they fail to embrace new processes. These new systems are often expensive up front and require time for development and implementation. Training is often ineffective and does not transfer to the actual workplace. I believe that as the potential of EPSS is realized, however, they will be more readily accepted and more widely used.

Information overload and a rapidly changing electronic workplace is definitely a challenge for me everyday. The enormous quantity of information and data that has become available in the computer era has presented a new set of problems for organizations such as schools. Teachers are often bombarded with mounds of data that must be managed in an organized, meaningful manner. An example would be reading levels of students in grades 3-5. The levels are derived from the Star Reading Test and this data is then used to develop plans of action for the most effective instruction in reading for the particular student. A blended instructional approach would be formal training of teachers blended with daily on-the-job experience. This may entail formal training by a company representative or one-on-one training in the classroom setting. In addition, online help and troubleshooting which are continuously updated are available. Transfer of knowledge is always the goal and training simply supports the knowledge.

When our school librarian retired five years ago and I suddenly found myself taking on the responsibities of serving in that position, I had no experience and no idea of what the job required. I was fortunate, however, to have the district librarian as a mentor who was willing to spend time with me and show me the ropes. Even though I have had quite a bit of formal training, I have learned a great deal from the informal training I have received from her and the other librarians in the district. I was forced to take on the role of information seeker and my learning has been driven by the real life situation that I suddenly found myself in. The four librarians in our district occasionally meet for lunch to chat about issues and share wisdom. I have gained an incredible amount of helpful information in these informal situations. We have formed a special relationship as we have collaborated and learned from each other. I would say that my mentor's approach has been one of a "coach" who has encouraged, informed, and gently "nudged" me to embrace technology. I value this learning experience and consider it to be a valuable resource.

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Evaluation in Instructional Design

CIRO Model

The CIRO Model is an evaluation approach that is described in the work of P. Warr, M. Bird and N. Rackham. It is based on four measurement categories but differs from the Kirkpatrick Model in several respects. The four categories are:

Context evaluation - measures the context within which a program takes place. It takes into account the way performance needs were identified, learning objectives were established, and the way the objectives link to and support the necessary competencies.

Input evaluation - measures a number of inputs and focuses on the resources needed to meet performance needs (e.g. staff, facilities, equipment, budget)

Reaction evaluation - measures how the participants reacted to the program. Draws on the participants' opinions of the program and how it might be improved.

Outcome evaluation - measures the training and development outcomes against the objectives.

By using this model I would first take into consideration the context within which the instruction takes place (in my case it would be a library setting). I would ask myself if the needs had been identified, if the objectives had been clearly stated, and whether the objectives supported the competencies. Next, I would need to determine if the resources were adequate to meet the needs. Were the staff, facilities, equipment, budget adequate to get the job done? Then I would reflect upon how the partipants had responded to the program. What did they think about the instruction? Were they actively engaged? What would they change? Finally, I would measure outcome of the instruction? Were the objectives effectively taught? Was there growth? Did the outcome meet the objectives?

Connoisseurship Model

Eisner's Connoisseurship Model involves a connoisseur or expert in a field of study estimating the worth of a new innovation. According to Eisner (1998), connoisseurship is the "art of appreciation" and educational connoisseurs are those who have a distintive awareness of qualitites in different settings. He thinks connoisseurs evaluate the issues by looking at their qualities and illuminate a situation so that it can be seen or appreciated by others as well. The connoisseurship model has two major implications: holistic approach to the anlysis and interpretation of data and multiple perspectives in the evaluative tasks.

I would employ this method to evaluate my instruction by taking into account the entire process of instruction, the reaction of learners, data collection, and outcomes of the instruction in order to determine qualities to be highlighted. I would then need to be able to reflect on action, engage with feelings, and be able to make informed judgements.

Technological Innovation

Rather than going to the expense of buying Smartboards, our elementary campus recently purchased Mimio Interactive devices for all teachers. The compact Mimio bar attaches to any standard whiteboard converting it into an interactive teaching medium that can manipulate anything on a computer screen right from the whiteboard. I was excited to see that most of our teachers, especially the younger digital natives, embraced this new technical innovation with enthusiasm and curiosity. There were those teachers, however, that were more hesitant to try anything new. They felt overwhelmed by all of their responsibilities and by their fear of new technology. After they had been trained on this new technology and after they realized it was relatively easy to use (complexity) most of the teachers on our campus were using the Mimio on a daily basis. The relative advantage of this new technology is that it offers an innovative way for teachers to create engaging, student-centered, interactive lessons to encourage active learning. Mimio technology is compatible with the needs of teachers and learners. It offers teachers ready-to-use lesson content, enlivens lessons with audio and video, records lessons to be reused whenever needed, or enables them to import existing lessons from Powerpoint or Adobe Acrobat. Mimio offers a range of training resources to fit the needs of users. It is easy to use right out of the box but they offer a flexible range of training programs if help is needed. As far as I know there is no free trial. The way I handled trialability on our campus was to purchase one and allow teachers the opportunity to come for onsight training and "try it out". Observable benefits of this new technology on our campus have been rapid adoption, widespread use, and active envolvement from learners.

Situational Leadership

As educators, we all understand the term "scarcity" when it comes to resources. With budgets being cut, staff being reduced and demands on our time stretched to the limit, these chapters hit home for me. Due to a reduction in staff, I no longer have a full-time library aide; however, my job requirements are increasing, and I often feel overwhemed by the responsibilities of my job. Personally, it would terrify me to find that I was responsible for professional development for technology use. When I stop and think about it, though, I am already responsible for some of it. I am responsible for the purchase of equipment which often includes training. I am proud to say that we have significantly increased the amount of technology being implemented in our classrooms since I assumed my position as librarian/media specialist almost 5 years ago. The phases involved in Situational Leadership are employed as follows:

Phase 1: When we first acquire new technology, the program must be supervised closely. Users must be trained with detailed information on how to use the equipment or program.

Phase 2: As the users gain confidence, my role as leader is to continue to explain and clarify use of the technology by answering questions and monitoring in order to help the learning process flow smoothly.

Phase 3: Now is the time to make sure that positive results are being produced and users are rewarded for their effort. These rewards might be intrinsic (feeling of pride at their accomplishments) or extrinsic (opportunity to share what they've accomplished with cohorts). The objective here is to make certain users feel informed and successful in using the new technology.

Phase 4: Once the learning has taken place, my role is to monitor the program and give users the opportunity to work on their own to produce a product.

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

TEKS for Technology Applications

Grades 3-5

Learning goal: (8)C The student is expected to participate with electronic communities as a

learner, initiator, contributor, or mentor.

I would incorporate Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction by having students generate a blog in which they reflect on books they are reading throughout the year. These reflections are to be shared with their classmates in an online book club.

Gaining attention - Read a short picture book and allow students to discuss the book orally.

Informing the learner of the objective - State the objective and explain to students

what is expected. Make sure they understand what should be included in the blog

reflections.Post the learning objective in the classroom.

Stimulating recall of prior learning - Ask students to briefly reflect orally on their

favorite book.

Presenting the stimulus - Demonstrate to students via Jing presentation how to create a

blog using Blogger.com. Explain how they are to post reflections and follow other blogs.

Providing learning guidance - Provide an example of a blog that exhibits all of the

qualities to be included in the blog.

Eliciting performance - Students will generate a blog and reflect on their favorite book by

posting a written reflection in their blog.

Providing feedback - Instructor will comment in the blog offering feedback about the

initial posting.

Assessing performance - After students have posted a book reflection, instructor will

assess students' performance using a rubric with a 5 pt. scale that rates the following criteria:

participation, content, grammar, and creativity.

Enhancing retention and transfer - Students will work together to create a classroom

blog that gives information about classroom activities, upcoming events, favorite books,

assignments, etc.

Schema Theory - Since students in grades 3-5 have experience in reading books and reflecting on them in oral and written reports, this would be considered schemata. I would incorporate this schema into the lesson encouraging them to use what they already knew to develop new and more complex schemata through experience and learning in the form of electronic blogs.

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

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How do they compare?

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Merrill's First Principles

1. Problem centered - Let me do the task!

Provide students with clear and complete instruction on "how-to" generate a blog and discuss different uses for an electronic blog. Make certain that students understand the instructional goals and are able to see the "big picture" or the "whole task."

2. Activation - Where do I start?

Ask students to consider their favorite book and give a brief oral book talk. Direct students to recall important information to be included in a book report (prior knowledge). Question students about why they recommend the book and invite them to publish an electronic "book talk". To create interest in reading and book discussions, students will publish their personal reflections about books in their own blog that can be shared with classmates.

3. Demonstration - Don't just tell me, show me!

Provide students with a range of examples of blogs that include the criteria that is to be included in the assignment. Use a Jing presentation to guide students through the process of setting up an account, creating a blog, and posting a reflection. A clear, narrative description along with this visual model of the sequence of events that characterize the process enable students to think about and recall prior knowledge.

4. Application -- Let me do it!

Provide learners with the opportunity to practice and apply their new knowledge and skills by generating a blog and posting their first personal reflection about their favorite book. Check for student understanding and offer corrective feedback and redirect if necessary.

5. Integration - Watch me!

Provide learners with the opportunity to use their new knowledge and skills by joining the class book club, generating a blog in which they post personal reflections about books, share favorite authors, and recommend books to classmates.

Whole-task approach refers to the shift in instructional design to a holistic approach in which objectives are not taught one-by-one or in isolation. Instead, instruction integrates skills in an effort to teach the "whole task." Creating a blog would be taught as a whole task consisting of the following subskills: Create an account using Blogger, post a reflection, edit post, insert a picture, embed a video, and publish the blog.

Scaffolding refers to the idea that specialized instructional supports need to be in place in order to facilitate learning. Some scaffolding techniques might include using a Jing presentation to model the subskills, activating prior knowledge by reflecting on what information would be included in a written book report, and conducting book talks on popular new books to pique interest.

Mathemagenic methods, like other holistic design approaches, aim at learning goals that go beyond a limited list of specific examples, and teach for transfer in order to foster learning. By asking leading questions throughout the learning task, the instructor may help students to transfer information and reach a more general understanding. By asking the students to read and analyze other blogs and give constructive feedback or by asking students to generate blogs for a variety of purposes, transfer of knowledge has taken place.

ARCS Model

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Students often have difficulties integrating the things they learn into a knowledge base and transfering this knowledge in their work and daily lives. A well-designed, holistic approach helps learners to coordinate integrated objectives and allows for transfer that goes beyond the classroom into the real world. The development of holistic instructional design models based on sound research have made a real difference in educational practices. As a result of this evidence-based instructional design, learners are learning to see the whole picture rather than learning in fragmented objectives that don't transfer to real and useful knowledge.

Section 1 - Defining the Field

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I must admit that until recently I was one of those people who considered instructional technology to be any media (hardware or software) used for instructional purposes. I gave little thought to what was actually involved in instructionaol technology and usually thought only of the physical components used to present the instruction such as computers, software, and audio/visual equipment. I have come to realize, however, that instructional technology is much more than instructional media.

I would agree with the authors of the text that the field should be termed Instructional design and technology. I would define it as a systematic process that includes the design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of instruction that uses technology to facilitate learning and improve performance. The process should be based on research findings, goals should be specified at the outset, and the user should be the focus of the instruction.

After studying the Dick, Carey and Carey Model, it all begins to make sense to me. I wouldn't change anything in the model as I consider every facet to be an integral part effective instruction. In fact, as I begin to think about how we are using technology at out elementary school, I realize that much of what we do with technology follows this model. The model supports all six characteristics of instructional design. According to Dick, Carey, & Carey, the first step in the process is to assess needs of the learners and identify the goal(s) of the instruction. If the goals are specified at the outset, then learners will know exactly what is to be the desired outcome of the instruction. In addition, if the learner's needs are assessed and the learners are analyzed early in the process, the instruction can be designed to accommodate the needs and goals of the learners. Therefore, the instruction learner centered and goal oriented. As stated in the text, "learners may be given opportunities to select their own objectives and/or learning methods in some circumstances". The power to learn is then placed in the user's court resulting in meaningful performance that is relevant for the learner.

One of the characteristics of instructional design is that outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way. This is a major component of the Dick, Carey, and Carey model. Performance measures must be clearly identified and reliable and valid assessment instruments developed. Instructional design should be research-based and as the model indicates, instruction should be revised as needed according to data collected throughout the process. This process often requires a combined effort of a team.

I felt a little nostalgic after reading the history of instructional design and technology in Chapter 3. As a young elementary student in the early 1960's I remember watching science films and viewing slides in school. When I compare the films of that era with the amazing multimedia presentations of today, I realize how far audiovisual instruction has come. The first interaction I had with a computer was in high school, and no one that I knew was very knowledgeable when it came to using one. Even as a college student and a beginning teacher, I had not been exposed to the modern technology of today. In my early years of teaching we were still using overhead projectors and cassette recordings, and the few computers that we had access to were used for word processing, record keeping, and AR quizzes. It was not until recently that I began to use technology as an instructional resource. After beginning my quest to become a certified librarian/media specialist, I became more interested in how to use technology to enhance learning. I now consider myself to be a facilitator of learning and instruction for students and teachers.

Technology has opened many avenues to education at all levels. In rural communities or small school districts, students are offered opportunities to enroll in online courses and distance education classes that would otherwise be unavailable to them. High school students can take courses through distance education . When I decided to further my education, the graduate degree plan that I was interested in was not offered in my area. I would not be able to travel the distance required to physically attend classes at TAMU. The perfect solution has been the online coursework that I have taken through TAMU-Commerce. I have come to realize after taking many online courses that the best teachers are often the students' themselves and that online learning is not impersonal...rather that it can more effectively meet the needs of the learner.

With the increased presence of technology and the introduction of the Internet into schools, the uses of technology in the field of education are endless. However, we must be careful not to use technology for technology's sake, but we must keep the needs of the learners as the focus of instruction. One way I anticipate using technology as an elementary librarian is to allow my young students to create a blog in which they share their thoughts and reflections about what they are reading with their classmates. The blog that we are using for this class has given me insight into how blogs allow students to express their thoughts and opinions in a very non-threatening way.